3.Place a layer of sticks across these two horizontal sticks to create the surface of the shelf, all the way from the front to the wall.

Grass Mattress

If you have the time and resources to create one, a grass mattress will really increase your comfort as it can be far superior to a bed made out of leaves. In truth, the mattress can be made out of materials other than grass, such as rosebay willowherb, straw or any other thin and hollow, flexible material.

1.To create the mattress, collect a good two armfuls of 3-foot-long stalks of grass or other material. All the stalks should point in the same direction. You will also need three pieces of cord, each roughly 4 yards in length. Place these three cords parallel on the ground, spaced about 1 foot apart.

2.Grab a handful of grass, split it in half and flip one half over before combining the handful back together. This action will ensure that your bundle has a more even thickness along its entire length.

Place this bundle across the middle of the parallel cords so that on either side of the bundle, about 2 yards of each cord stick out. One of the cords should be in the center of your bundle, while the remaining two are closer to both ends of your bundle.

3.Use the center cord to tie the grass bundle tightly together by wrapping one end of the cord twice around the other end and pulling tight. You should find that by wrapping the cord twice around itself, rather than the more usual single knot, your knot should create a flat surface on the bundle. Repeat this process with the other two pieces of cord, so that the bundle is tied tightly together in three places. Ensure that the knots are all on the same side of the bundle, so that the bundle has one flattened side.

4.Grab your next handful of grass, split it once again in half and flip one half over before recombining the bundle. Place this bundle right on top of the previous knots, and tie it down in the same way, using the same flat, twice-wrapped knot you tied the first bundle with. Keep repeating this process until your mattress is the length you wish it to be. You will notice that, because we created a flat knot, the bundles of grass can sit quite tightly together, eliminating any gaps. Once your mattress is complete, you can leave it as is or tidy it up a bit by chopping the ends off the bundles to form more uniform sides, making it easier to move about without it catching on things.

With a bit of care, these mattresses can last a long time and remain incredibly comfortable. Obviously, while producing the mattress, it is easy to make it thicker or thinner, longer or wider depending on your requirements and availability of resources. While the grass is still fresh (and not too brittle) it is possible to roll the mattress up as well. Once the grass dries, though, take caution to prevent breaking the stems.

Tripod Back Rest

Creating a back rest to allow you to sit in comfort is actually incredibly easy.

1.Gather three sticks, each about 4 feet long and sturdy enough for you to lean against.

2.Tie the sticks together at the top end with cord, cinching between the sticks to allow some maneuverability.

3.Place two of the legs on the ground about 2 feet apart, and place the third leg about 2 feet behind it, creating a triangle. For extra sturdiness, hammer three stakes deep into the ground and anchor the three legs securely to the pegs.

4.Drape a grass mattress over the frame, so that the two front legs of the frame are completely covered by the mattress and there’s 1 to 2 feet lying flat on the ground to sit on.

A good sturdy backrest is essential as it allows you to sit in comfort, insulated from the ground, close to the fire. The mattress behind your back will allow heat to be retained and, if placed fortuitously, help block incoming wind.

Smoking Out Shelters/Cleansing Shelters

Smoking out a living space with acrid herbs is common today in numerous ceremonies and cleansing rituals. However, I have no doubt that the original reason for cleansing a shelter with smoke came from the need to reduce the presence of insects in the shelter. Filling a leaf shelter up with acrid smoke will drive out even the most determined bug.

In order to do this, you will need some form of fireproof container, a fire and materials which smell acrid when heated. Most (fresh) evergreen needles will work well for this, as will sage.

1.Create the fire. In the fireproof container, place a bed of glowing embers from the fire. If you want, you can strengthen the bed of hot coals by adding some small dry branches to it and allowing them to burn up.

2.Create the smoke. Place copious amounts of pine needles or whatever other material you were able to find on top of the embers. Have a means of extinguishing a fire at hand should it all go wrong, though I’ve not yet seen that happen yet. Once the glowing embers start scorching the material, a thick smoke will be produced.

3.Introduce the smoke into the shelter. At that point, place the fireproof container inside the shelter, and close over most of the entrance. You’ll need to keep a visual on the container from outside though, so you can react immediately if you see flames appear. Keep replacing the embers and material regularly, allowing your shelter to be filled with smoke for 30 minutes or so. A good indication that your shelter is truly smoked through is when smoke has begun to seep through the debris walls and roof of your shelter. If you are really keen-eyed, you may notice spiders making a beeline for the nearest exit.

When finished, remove the container, extinguish any remaining embers or material and allow your shelter to air out. This process might have to be repeated every week or so, depending on how many insects are about.

Making a Tallow Lamp

Most of the shelters described above are gloomy at best, even on the sunniest of days.

Apart from the use of modern lighting such as head torches, candles and lanterns, it can be hard to provide any sort of artificial light inside the shelter. One of the best methods is using oils or tallows. Oils are generally impossible to obtain, but tallows can be produced in a primitive setting. In order to do so, you will need a fire or a camping stove, a fireproof container and animal fat which can be obtained from meat you’ve hunted or otherwise attained.

1.Gently warm the animal fat in the container over the fire (I used a camping stove). As the fat melts, you will find “fritters” start to form among the liquid fat. Carefully skim these off. Once all the fat has melted, try and skim any remaining impurities out of the liquid or strain the liquid through any cloth you have available.