The central government structure with an emperor at its head and a ruling hierarchy of officials to administer the many provinces of Japan still existed, but it was no longer a meritocracy as in China, where only the best and most learned rose to office in the civil service, but rather a hereditary bureaucracy by the nobility and centered primarily in one family, the Fujiwaras. The Fujiwaras furnished all the top officials and most of the empresses. They saw to it that emperors abdicated young, to be replaced by another, even younger, ruler who could be manipulated by his maternal grandfather and uncles.

Culture, however, flourished under this system. The aristocracy prized learning, writing, music, and the arts. A court lady wrote Genji, the first novel in the world in the early years of the eleventh century. Because of all the literary activity of the time, much is known about life at court and the lives of the nobility. Much less is known about ordinary people.

They lived in the cities, where they provided goods and services to noble families, and in the country, where they were mostly peasants, raising the all-important rice crops. Heian-kyo (modern Kyoto) was the capital and the seat of government. Laid out in the eighth century according to Chinese precepts in a rectangle with a grid of major and minor streets, it followed feng shui principles, having mountains to its north and rivers to the west, east, and south.

The northernmost third was occupied by the Daidairi, a government city within the city, and by the palaces of the nobility. The Daidairi contained the imperial palace, ceremonial halls, and buildings housing the various ministries, the guards’ barracks, the horse stables, and offices supplying goods to the palace. The entire area was walled and gated.

The capital itself never had walls, but it had gates, the most important of which was Rashomon to the south. By the eleventh century, this gate may no longer have existed. Other parts of the original city also fell into ruin. The entire western half of the city became a dangerous haunt of the poor and criminal elements. Business was concentrated in the eastern half.

It should be noted that there is no evidence that Heian-kyo had a “willow quarter” at this time. However, prostitution was common, especially in the brothel towns on the Yodo River south of the capital. Female entertainers also traveled the country in groups, offering their services, both as dancers and singers and as sexual partners. It is likely that some area of the city would have offered such services on a permanent basis. Some of the details about prostitution in early Japan are based on scholarly works for the period, but many also come from later Japanese literature on the subject.

The architectural style of Japanese buildings can still be seen in many of the temples from the period. The entire Daidairi would have been built this way, with the gracefully curved roofs, either covered with greenish blue glazed tiles or, like the imperial palace, with a dark bark roof. The buildings were always of wood, constructed with huge pillars resting on large flat stones. Floors were raised above ground, verandas surrounded them, and the large interior spaces could be separated into rooms by movable walls and screens. Doors were solid or shuttered, and when they stood open, reed shades could be lowered for privacy. This construction method made even the largest and most elaborate buildings subject to destruction by fire or earthquake, but they had the advantage of being easy to rebuild or move. In fact, the Japanese repeatedly moved their entire capital from one place to another when it seemed advantageous.

The nobility lived in large mansions, sometimes occupying whole city blocks, which were walled and gated and consisted of a main house with galleries leading to wings and to separate pavilions. They had elaborate gardens in the back and service areas in the front.

Ordinary people lived in much simpler abodes. Here again there is little information. In my books, any references to their dwellings are based on pictures from later periods.

This particular novel contains several terms that may need special explanation. The idea that life in this world is a “floating bridge,” i.e. immaterial and transitory, is based on Buddhist teachings, another import from China. The concepts of hell and paradise are also derived from this faith, which coexisted with the native Shinto religion. The religious figures in this novel are all Buddhist: Abbot Genshin and Nun Seikan have renounced the world, i.e. chosen a life of poverty and celibacy in order to worship Buddha. The young woman Sadako was briefly a nun, having been forced to withdraw from the world because of her husband’s capital crime. Choosing a religious life as a rule protected people from harsh sentences and confiscation of property. Genshin had made this choice in his youth.

Medical knowledge in the eleventh century was fairly primitive and consisted mainly of prescribing herbal medicines, acupuncture, and moxa treatments. Medical practitioners could come from different backgrounds, being frequently monks or pharmacists, but the Imperial University also trained physicians.

The issue of money is a troublesome one for anyone writing fiction set in eleventh century Japan. Most scholarly texts assure us that Japan had a rice economy; i.e. rice was used in a barter system. In fact, other valuable things, like rolls of silk or horses, could also be used to pay bills, reward people, or present as gifts. Officials were paid by being given rice farms for their livelihood, and a man’s wealth was judged by how many manors and rice fields he owned. Rice could also be given as a loan against future harvests, when it had to be repaid with interest. Monasteries and temples were in the rice lending business. But actual money existed and came in the form of coins that were copper, silver, or gold. Gold and silver bars were also available. Men must have been provided with some ready cash for daily expenses. Japan imported coins from China, but it also pursued gold and silver mining aggressively. On the other hand, there is no evidence that moneylenders like Nakamura and Saito existed in the eleventh century. They became common later.

About the Author

I.J. Parker was born and educated in Europe and turned to mystery writing after an academic career in the U.S. She has published her Akitada stories in Alfred Hitchcock’s Mystery Magazine, winning the Shamus award in 2000. Several stories have also appeared in collections, such as Fifty Years of Crime and Suspense and the recent Shaken. The award-winning “Akitada’s First Case” is available as a podcast. Many of the stories have been collected in Akitada and the Way of Justice.

The Akitada series of crime novels features the same protagonist, an eleventh century Japanese nobleman/detective. Death on an Autumn River is number nine. The books are available on Kindle. Many are also in print in audio format and have been translated into twelve languages.

Also by I. J. Parker

The Akitada series in chronological order

The Dragon Scroll

Rashomon Gate

Black Arrow

Island of Exiles

The Hell Screen

The Convict’s Sword

The Masuda Affair

The Fires of the Gods

Death on an Autumn River

The Emperor’s Woman

Death of a Doll Maker

The Crane Pavilion

The collected stories

Akitada and the Way of Justice

The HOLLOW REED SAGA

Dream of a Spring Night

Dust before the Wind

The Sword Master

The Left-Handed God