Chapter 4

1 For a complete English translation and study of al-Tahtawi’s work, Takhlis al-Ibriz fi Talkhis Bariz [The extraction of pure gold in the abridgement of Paris], see Daniel L. Newman, An Imam in Paris: Al-Tahtawi’s Visit to France (1826–1831) (London: Saqi, 2004).

2 Ibid., pp. 99, 249.

3 Ibid., pp. 105, 161.

4 The analysis of the constitution is reproduced in ibid., pp. 194–213.

5 Al-Tahtawi’s analysis of the July Revolution of 1830 may be found in ibid., pp. 303–330.

6 A translation of the 1839 Reform Decree is reproduced in J. C. Hurewitz, The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, vol. 1 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), pp. 269–271.

7 The text of the 1856 Decree is reproduced in ibid., pp. 315–318.

8 The diary of Muhammad Sa‘id al-Ustuwana, the Ottoman judge of Damascus, was edited and published by As’ad al-Ustuwana, Mashahid wa ahdath dimishqiyya fi muntasif al-qarn al-tasi’ ’ashar (1840–1861) [Eyewitness to Damascene events in the mid-nineteenth century, 1840–1861] (Damascus: Dar al-Jumhuriyya, 1993), p. 162.

9 Jonathan Frankel, The Damascus Affair: “Ritual Murder,” Politics, and the Jews in 1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

10 Bruce Masters, “The 1850 Events in Aleppo: An Aftershock of Syria’s Incorporation into the Capitalist World System,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 22 (1990): 3–20.

11 Leila Fawaz, An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860 (London: I. B. Tauris, 1994); and Ussama Makdisi, The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000).

12 The memoirs of Abu al-Sa‘ud al-Hasibi, Muslim notable of Damascus, as quoted by Kamal Salibi in “The 1860 Upheaval in Damascus as Seen by al-Sayyid Muhammad Abu’l-Su’ud al-Hasibi, Notable and Later Naqib al-Ashraf of the City,” in William Polk and Richard Chambers, eds., Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 190.

13 Wheeler Thackston Jr. has translated Mikhayil Mishaqa’s 1873 history under the title Murder, Mayhem, Pillage, and Plunder: The History of the Lebanon in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Albany: SUNY Press, 1988), p. 244.

14 Mishaqa’s report to the U.S. Consul in Beirut of September 27, 1860, in Arabic, is held in the National Archives, College Park, Maryland.

15 Y. Hakan Erdem, Slavery in the Ottoman Empire and Its Demise, 1800–1909 (Basingstoke, UK: 1996).

16 Roger Owen, The Middle East in the World Economy, 1800–1914 (London: Methuen, 1981), p. 123.

17 David Landes, Bankers and Pashas: International Finance and Economic Imperialism in Egypt (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), pp. 91–92.

18 Owen, Middle East in the World Economy, pp. 126–127.

19 Janet Abu Lughod, Cairo: 1001 Years of the City Victorious (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), pp. 98–113.

20 The autobiography of Khayr al-Din, “А mes enfants” [To my children], was edited by M. S. Mzali and J. Pignon and published under the title “Documents sur Kheredine,” Revue Tunisienne (1934): 177–225, 347–396. Passage cited appears on p. 183.

21 Khayr al-Din’s political treatise, Aqwam al-masalik li ma‘rifat ahwal al-mamalik [The surest path to knowledge concerning the conditions of countries], was translated and edited by Leon Carl Brown, The Surest Path: The Political Treatise of a Nineteenth-Century Muslim Statesman (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967).

22 Ibid., pp. 77–78.

23 Jean Ganiage, Les Origines du Protectorat francaise en Tunisie (1861–1881) (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1959); L. Carl Brown, The Tunisia of Ahmad Bey (1837–1855) (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974); and Lisa Anderson, The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830–1980 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986).

24 Quoted in Brown, The Surest Path, p. 134.

25 Mzali and Pignon, “Documents sur Kheredine,” pp. 186–187.

26 P. J. Vatikiotis, The History of Egypt from Muhammad Ali to Sadat (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980).

27 Niyazi Berkes, The Emergence of Secularism in Turkey (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 207.

28 Ahmet Cevdet Pasha in Charles Issawi, The Economic History of Turkey, 1800–1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 349–351; and Roderic Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 112.

29 Mzali and Pignon, “Documents sur Kheredine,” pp. 189–190.

30 Owen, Middle East in the World Economy, pp. 100–121.

31 Ibid., pp. 122–152.

Chapter 5

1 Both texts are reproduced in Hurewitz, The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, vol. 1 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975), pp. 227–231.

2 Rifa’a Rafi’ al-Tahtawi, An Imam in Paris (London: Saqi, 2004), pp. 326–327.

3 Alexandre Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader: Sa Vie politique et militaire (Paris: Hachette, 1863), p. 120.

4 The original texts of both agreements, with English translation, are reproduced in Raphael Danziger, Abd al-Qadir and the Algerians: Resistance to the French and Internal Consolidation (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1977), pp. 241–260. For maps showing the territories allotted France and Algeria under these treaties, see ibid., between pp. 95–96 and between pp. 157–158.

5 Reproduced in Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader, p. 260.

6 Ibid., p. 223.

7 A. de France, Abd-El-Kader’s Prisoners; or Five Months’ Captivity Among the Arabs (London: Smith, Elder and Co., n.d.), pp. 108–110.

8 Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader, pp. 286–289. Abd al-Qadir’s son wrote on the impact of the capture of the zimala on his soldiers’ morale in Tuhfat al-za’ir fi tarikh al-Jaza’ir wa’l-Amir ’Abd al-Qadir (Beirut: Dar al-Yaqiza al-‘Arabiyya, 1964), pp. 428–431.

9 Tangier Convention for the Restoration of Friendly Relations: France and Morocco, September 10, 1844, reproduced in Hurewitz, Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, pp. 286–287.

10 Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader, p. 242.

11 Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 190–191. Note that French francs converted to pounds sterling at FF25 = Ј1, and the Turkish pound converted at the rate of ЈT1 = Ј0.909.

12 Urabi contributed an autobiographical essay to Jurji Zaydan’s biographical dictionary, Tarajim Mashahir al-Sharq fi’l-qarn al-tasi’ ‘ashar [Biographies of famous people of the East in the nineteenth century], vol. 1 (Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, 1910), pp. 254–280 (hereafter Urabi memoirs).

13 Ibid., p. 261.

14 Urabi recounted these events to Wilfrid Scawen Blunt in 1903, who reproduced the account in his Secret History of the British Occupation of Egypt (New York: Howard Fertig, 1967, reprint of 1922 ed.), p. 369.

15 Urabi memoirs, p. 269.

16 Ibid., p. 270.

17 Ibid., p. 272.

18 Blunt asked Muhammad Abdu to comment on Urabi’s account of events; Blunt, Secret History, p. 376.

19 Urabi memoirs, p. 274.

20 Blunt, Secret History, p. 372.

21 A. M. Broadley, How We Defended Arabi and His Friends (London: Chapman and Hall, 1884), p. 232.

22 Ibid., pp. 375–376.

23 Blunt, Secret History, p. 299.

24 Mudhakkirat ’Urabi [Memoirs of Urabi], vol. 1 (Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, 1954), pp. 7–8.